Agriculture Disease control and Prevention

University of Agriculture Faisalabad

Vegetable Diseases: A Colour Handbook

IF THERE IS BLIGHT OR MILDEW on one’s crops, what is one to do? The topic of diseases that damage and kill plants is hardly a new subject. For as long as humans have foraged for, grown, traded, or eaten edible plants, disease-causing organisms have been present and exacted their toll on quality, yields, and consumer satisfaction of these commodities. Impacts of plant diseases on the lives of people range from the nuisance of losing a few plants in one’s garden, to significant economic losses to a farmer, and finally to widespread famine due to extensive crop losses in a region. Throughout human history, devastating crop losses have sometimes resulted in subsequent loss of human life and disruptive migrations of the inhabitants. Humanity’s dependence on healthy crops and reliable sources of food, therefore, transcends all barriers of culture, nation, and time. We all need to eat and to feed our children.

Vegetables are an essential and increasingly popular component of human diets today. Collectively, vegetable crops are a major part of agricultural commerce. The vegetable industry produces large volumes of high quality commodities that are intensely marketed and can be delivered locally and regionally or shipped internationally. Consumer standards and market requirements mandate excellent quality produce. The diseases that affect vegetables compromise such quality and therefore are of great importance to grower, shipper, marketer, and consumer. Vegetable production and marketing in the 21st Century has been fashioned by technology and developments that are unique to our times, including molecular biology, globalization of international trade, awareness of the benefits and dangers of synthetic pesticides, and insights into specific health benefits of vegetable foods.

This book is written to address the broad topic of diseases that affect vegetables. Part 1 offers a brief introduction to vegetable crops, descriptions of the disease-causing agents, suggested strategies for identifying and diagnosing vegetable diseases, and general principles in controlling them. In this book we describe diseases that are primarily caused by pathogens (biotic diseases). Problems caused by nutritional and physio logical disorders and environmental and cultural actors (abiotic problems) are mostly not covered.

The rest of the book (Part 2) is divided into chapters on the principal crop groups (and further subdivided if different plants within the group suffer from distinct sets of diseases) and describes the major diseases that affect those vegetables. The diseases are, for the most part, organized first by pathogen type and then by pathogen name. (We should point out that each crop chapter does not include all possible diseases and that the disease list is therefore not exhaustive.) Of special note are chapters devoted to spinach ��?an increasingly popular vegetable ��?and to specialty crops and herbs. Each disease entry includes a brief introduction to the disease, detailed description of symptoms, information on the pathogen and disease development, and suggestions on how to manage the problem. For pathogens that affect several crops, full details are presented in only one chapter in order to reduce unnecessary repetition; for other crops that are subject to the same disease, reference will be made to the more complete chapter.

Selected references are included that will allow interested readers to further research the subject. Our collective experience in applied research, extension education, and working closely with farmers and industry members has shaped our approach. Our aim is to increase recognition and diagnosis of vegetable diseases and to provide information on biology and control of the problems. A particular feature of this book are the many high-quality color photographs that illustrate most of these vegetable diseases and which will assist the reader in identifying and understanding them.The glossary at the end lists much of the terminology used in plant pathology and related fields.

In an effort to keep this book timely and reduce the amount of information that rapidly becomes outdated, we have not included specific information on vegetable crop cultivars, pesticide product recommendations, and seed treatments. Such information can change from year to year and also varies greatly between regions, countries, and continents. Seed treatments, in particular, can be implemented in many ways depending upon the practitioner, the nature and location of the seed treatment facility, and so on. For up-to-date and area-appropriate recommendations on vegetable cultivars and disease control chemicals and treatments, consult local extension agents, agricultural consultants, or other professionals who are familiar with the location.

We have written this book with a very broad and diverse audience in mind. We hope this effort will help and be of interest to the following persons: research and extension plant pathologists; diagnosticians and plant lab personnel; teachers of agriculture and related subjects; university students in agriculture and related fields; commercial farmers, vegetable producers, and farm managers; agriculturalists in the fields of seed production, vegetable breeding, agrichemicals, pest control, marketing, and other subjects; government and regulatory persons dealing with agriculture; home gardeners and hobbyists.











Plant diseases can be broken down into two rather broad categories. Non-parasitic diseases are caused by effects like too much humidity, too little fertilizer or incorrect pH balance in the soil. Parasitic diseases are contagious and caused by bacterial or fungi being passed from one plant to another through tools, hands, insects or other methods of conveyanc

Powdery Mildew

• Powdery mildew can affect nearly all plants, but is especially found on begonias, lilacs, roses, strawberries and lawn grasses. The symptoms of powdery mildew are a white coating found on the leaves and shoots. This substance can sometimes be found on the flowers. Growing season is the most likely time of occurrence.

Damping Off

• Damping off affects the seedlings of almost every plant. Damping off occurs when soil-borne fungi attack the seedlings. This disease can also attack plant cuttings. The symptoms are wilting, followed by the collapse of the stem. Causes of damping off include overwatering, planting when the temperature or humidity are too high and soil with a too high nitrogen content.
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Leaf Spot

• Leaf spot can be caused by either bacteria or fungi infection. A fungal infection results in dark, dry spots that can often be ring-shaped with smaller rings inside. The bacterial infection produces smooth, irregular spots that are sometimes surrounded by a yellow halo-effect. Causes of leaf spot include some kind of physic trauma that results in a wound through which organisms can enter. Other causes include overwatering, low light levels, poor ventilation and a sudden chill.

Rhizome Rot

• Rhizome rot affects rhizomes from irises to ginger. The symptoms include a soft, yellow rot at the growing point that produces a foul odor. Ultimately, this disease causes the leaves to collapse. Rhizome rot can occur at any time, but be especially aware during rainy periods.

Stem Rot

• Stem rot affects a variety of plants, but each deals with its own unique form of the disease. The stems begin to rot for no apparent reason. Stem rot is notable for the lack of any obvious signs of fungus growth on the affected area in some cases. Other plants will exhibit signs in the form of stems that become darker and turn mushy. Causes include growth in extremely warm or humid areas, overwatering and poor ventilation.

Shot-Hole Fungus

• Shot-hole fungus attacks fruit plants like cherries, peaches and plum trees. Symptoms include small purple spots that appear on twigs, leaves and developing fruit. These spots begin appearing in spring and eventually turn brown. The spots sometimes drop free of the leaves and leave behind what looks like a shot-hole. The result is a reduced yield of fruit, but one that can still be eaten if peeled.

Crown Gall

• Crown gall is characterized by large knotty areas that can grow to several inches in diameter that appear at the base of the plant as well as on stems and roots. The result of crown gall can be the death of a single branch or an entire plant or it can have no effect at all. Crown gall is caused by a bacterium that inhabits the soil around the plant. It is most often caused by the introduction of a plant to the garden that is already contaminated.

National Program 303: Plant Diseases FY 2006 Annual Report FY 2006 Annual Report for National Program 303 Introduction The overall goal of National Program 303 – Plant Diseases – is to develop and improve ways to reduce crop losses caused by plant diseases.  These diseases reduce yields, lower product quality or shelf-life, decrease aesthetic or nutritional value, and, sometimes, contaminate food and feed with toxic compounds.  Control of plant diseases is essential for providing an adequate supply of food, feed, fiber, and aesthetics.  Reducing these losses has long been a high priority for agriculture and for the Agricultural Research Service (ARS).  Besides the obvious monetary benefits to producers and processors, successful plant health protection is important for maintaining and increasing food supplies with minimal increases in land under cultivation. Additionally, the knowledge and management of plant diseases of quarantine significance are vital, not only for protecting our domestic crops from foreign disease, but also for maintaining and expanding export markets for plants and plant products. This National Program focuses on developing effective disease control strategies that are not environmentally harmful, do not threaten the safety of consumers, and are compatible with sustainable and profitable crop production.  The ARS program is conducted in cooperation with related research in other public and private institutions. National Program 303 is comprised of four components: ·        Disease Diagnosis: Detection, Identification and Characterization of Plant Pathogens; ·        Biology, Ecology, Epidemiology, and Spread of Plant Pathogens and their Relationships with Hosts and Vectors; ·        Plant Disease Resistance; and ·        Biological and Cultural Strategies for Sustainable Disease Management. Together, these components are yielding breakthroughs in understanding and controlling plant diseases and in developing strategies for controlling disease that enhance agricultural value. During fiscal year 2006 this program produced several important discoveries and advances. Some of these are described below, grouped by program component: Component I – Disease Diagnosis: Detection, Identification and Characterization of Plant Pathogens The arrival of citrus greening, Huanglongbing, represents a serious threat to citrus production inFlorida.  ARS scientists at Beltsville, Maryland developed and validated the first real-time and quantitative PCR assay for the greening pathogen.  This assay was used by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and the Florida Department of Agriculture to confirm the presence of citrus greening in Florida.  Producers will benefit from early detection and genetic improvement for resistance will be accelerated. Barley and cereal yellow dwarf viruses (five strains), wheat spindle streak mosaic, wheat soil-borne mosaic virus, and wheat streak mosaic virus represent the most economically important group of viruses that infect wheat.  ARS researchers at West Lafayette, Indiana, have developed a single, fast test that can simultaneously detect all eight viruses.  Development of this assay enables rapid and accurate diagnosis of the cause of wheat disease damage.  Producers will benefit from early detection, and genetic improvement for resistance will be accelerated. Necrotic union disorder, a viral disease, was discovered in California on Pinot Noir grape on 110R rootstock by ARS scientists at Davis, California, in collaboration with scientists from the Universityof California, Davis.  A survey of several vineyard blocks planted to four different Pinot Noir clones documented a disease incidence ranging from 5 to 45 percent, suggesting a rapid spread of the new disease.  A research project has been established to identify and characterize the causal agent for the disease and to study the disease development, spread, and effective control measures for this new viral disease. Component II – Biology, Ecology, Epidemiology, and Spread of Plant Pathogens and their Relationships with Hosts and Vectors Soybean rust, Phakopsora pachyrhizi, may drastically reduce yields and/or increase production costs for U.S. producers.  Since the report of soybean rust in Hawaii in 1994, ARS has renewed its support for soybean rust research.  ARS scientists at Ft. Detrick, Frederick, Maryland, screened over 16,000 soybean accessions in the USDA Germplasm Collection located at Urbana, Illinois. These soybean accessions were evaluated for resistance to P. pachyrhizi in Biosafety Level 3 containment greenhouses.  The objectives of these evaluations were to identify accessions that may provide new sources of resistance.  Many new sources of resistance were discovered. The sources of resistance identified in this research may provide the resistance genes needed for future development of soybean cultivars with soybean rust resistance. This information will be critical to soybean researchers that are interested in sources of resistance to soybean rust. Phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas cause many agriculturally important diseases of plants, but the development of effective disease control measures is hampered by difficulties in identifying the pathogen’s strains and species.  ARS scientists at Beltsville, Maryland identified candidate molecular biomarkers that can distinguish strains and species of these pathogens and that are of potential significance in the survival of the pathogens in their hosts and in the development of plant diseases.  This accomplishment provides new knowledge important for understanding mechanisms involved in pathogenicity and transmission of the pathogen by insect vectors. Component III – Plant Disease Resistance ARS scientists at Stoneville, Mississippi, have released an advanced breeding line JTN-5503 with resistance to soybean cyst nematode, frogeye leaf spot, stem canker, and charcoal rot.  The soybean cyst nematode is a serious pest of soybean in all the soybean production regions in theUnited States, and public soybean breeders have resistance to this pest as a major breeding objective.  The other diseases can also cause significant yield losses.  JTN-5503 was grown in nine states in the USDA Southern Uniform Tests program in 2004 and 2005 and was one of the two top-yielding entries in its maturity group.  Soybean breeders will use this germplasm line as a parent to develop soybean varieties for soybean producers. Root-knot nematodes cause severe damage and reduce yields in watermelon in the United States.  Watermelon germplasm was evaluated by ARS scientists at Charleston, South Carolina, for resistance to southern root-knot nematode in greenhouse tests.  Information on resistance and evaluation methodology was transferred to vegetable seed companies, who have begun screening watermelon germplasm, and to USDA Plant Introductions for resistance to root-knot nematodes. Discovery of resistance to southern root-knot nematode in watermelon germplasm could lead to the development of resistant watermelon varieties, a critical issue due to the restricted availability of methyl bromide as a soil fumigant and the pending loss of other nematicides due to environmental concerns. Component IV – Biological and Cultural Strategies for Sustainable Disease Management Fire blight is a serious disease of apple and pear trees caused by a bacterium.  ARS scientists atWenatchee, Washington, utilized new techniques of evaluating beneficial microorganisms on blossoms, the site of primary infections, which led to the discovery of Pantoea agglomerans strain E325, an effective biocontrol agent, and to a patent license agreement with a private company interested in its commercial development.  Research cooperation with the company from 1999 to the present led to improvements in fermentation and formulation methods, establishment of effective field rates, and information required by regulatory agencies in the United States andCanada.  In September 2006, a formulated product consisting of E325 as the active ingredient was fully registered through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, allowing its availability to fruit growers for fire blight management during the spring of 2007 and the potential for improved control of this disease. Anthracnose is causing increasing damage to U.S. sorghum production and is difficult to combat because there are multiple biotypes of anthracnose.  ARS researchers at College Station, Texas, and Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, have employed artificial inoculation methods to identify 12 sorghum accessions in the U.S. sorghum collection that are highly resistant to anthracnose. Characterization of these resistant sources will be crucial to effective management of the disease. Identification of the multiple lines with anthracnose resistance also provides sorghum breeders with critical new germplasm for use in developing needed resistance to anthracnose.  NIOSH Agricultural Safety and Health Centers The Centers for Agricultural Disease and Injury Research, Education, and Prevention represent a major NIOSH effort to protect the health and safety of agricultural workers and their families. The NIOSH Agricultural Centers were established as part of a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) / NIOSH Agricultural Health and Safety Initiative in 1990. The Centers were established by cooperative agreement to conduct research, education, and prevention projects to address the nation’s pressing agricultural health and safety problems.  Geographically, the Centers are distributed throughout the nation to be responsive to the agricultural health and safety issues unique to the different regions. Agricultural Center Program Objectives Develop and conduct research related to the prevention of occupational disease and injury of agricultural workers and their families. Develop and implement model educational outreach, and intervention programs promoting agricultural health and safety for agricultural workers and their families. Develop and evaluate control technologies to prevent illness and injuries among agricultural workers and their families. Develop and implement model programs for the prevention of illness and injury among agricultural workers and their families. Evaluate agricultural injury and disease prevention and educational materials and programs implemented by the Center. Provide consultation and/or training to researchers, health and safety professionals, graduate/professional students, and agricultural extension agents and others in a position to improve the health and safety of agricultural workers. Develop linkages and communication with other governmental and non-governmental bodies involved in agricultural health and safety with special emphasis on communications with other CDC/NIOSH sponsored agricultural health and safety programs. Agricultural Center Projects Brief descriptions of the currently funded NIOSH Ag Centers provide an overview of the diverse activities being undertaken. Ag Centers have ongoing pilot/feasibility project program that cannot be adequately covered here. For those desiring to learn more, we have provided a link to each Ag Center website further down the page. High Plains Intermountain Center for Agriculture Health and Safety (HICAHS) The High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (HICAHS) at Colorado State University has an outstanding record of service to Public Health Region VIII (Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming). HICAHS has been nationally and internationally recognized for research on organic dust aerosols and respiratory disease, pesticides and tractor roll-over protective structures (ROPS) engineering. Education and outreach, built on strong partnership with Cooperative Extension, have served as national models. The mission of HICAHS is to reduce morbidity and mortality in the agricultural population and translate research knowledge into community action. This Center has also coordinated the Agriculture Center Evaluation Project. Individual HICAHS Center Projects Injury Risk Analysis in Large-Herd Dairy Parlors This novel project is the first US study to address the health and safety of large-herd dairy workers. It is significant because of the national trend toward mass milk production operations and the lack of research addressing these new work environments. The long-term goal is to reduce the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries among dairy workers. Four primary aims are being addressed: 1) identify upper extremity risk factors associated with musculoskeletal symptoms (MSS) among workers in parallel, rotary, and herringbone style dairy parlors, 2) assess the risk for traumatic injury as related to worker body positioning and animal behavior in different parlor configurations, 3) determine the 12-month prevalence of MSS among workers in three types of dairy parlors, 4) determine the association between parlor exposures or personal factors with prevalent MSS among workers, and 5) identify safety interventions through active participatory partnerships with dairy operators. These aims are being accomplished using worker surveys (N=444), analysis of milking tasks from dairy parlors (N=50 dairy parlors) and focus groups with parlor workers (N=108). Multivariate analysis is being used to test the hypothesis that upper extremity MSS are associated with dairy parlor work stressors after controlling for potential confounding variables. Prospective Study of Occupational Lung Disease and Endotoxin Exposure in Naive (New) Dairy Workers More than 1M dairy workers nationwide, mostly Hispanic, are at risk for respiratory disease from organic dust aerosols. The goals are to: characterize worker exposure to endotoxin-containing aerosols and evaluate respiratory outcomes including symptoms, pulmonary function and cellular/immune markers (cytokines) of inflammation (n = 184); compare exposures and health outcomes among Colorado dairy workers to a comparable study of California dairy workers (n = 200) (conducted by the Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety); re-evaluate a subset of new (naive) workers (n = 92) at 1 month (n = 92) and at 1 year (n = 46) following their first assessment; evaluate whether endotoxin assay or GC/MS is the best predictor of biomarkers, symptoms, and changes in pulmonary function; survey genetic markers related to lung disease and endotoxin etiology TLR4, TLR9, MD2, CD14 gene mutations, and polymorphisms of IL1-RN, and TNF-alpha.6); and identify job factors associated with highest exposures/greatest risk of respiratory disease. HICAHS is working closely with the Integrated Livestock Management Initiative and the dairy industry to develop and disseminate cost-effective, culturally acceptable interventions. Enhancing Translation and Dissemination through Agricultural Partners The goal is to boost the regional research to practice (r2p) of new knowledge and technologies in agricultural health and safety. The project builds on a foundation of established agricultural partnerships and a team of cross-disciplinary investigators from occupational health, animal science, technical communication, and occupational health psychology. Knowledge generated from community-initiated health and safety programs and from HICAHS research projects are being translated into user-specific media and disseminated using a participatory Agricultural Extension Model. Specific aims include: 1) augment regional agricultural health and safety education programs and 2) enhance the translation and dissemination of knowledge developed from agricultural community-initiated small grants and from HICAHS research to agricultural stakeholders. The project team is collaborating with agricultural organizations that have received community-initiated small grants and with HICAHS researchers involved in prevention and intervention projects, to collectively develop, revise, and execute their respective translation and dissemination activities. Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health The Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health (GPCAH) at The University of Iowa is a nationally recognized public health resource that develops and implements programs of research, intervention, translation, education, and outreach with the long-term goal of preventing occupational injury and illness among agricultural workers and their families. The overall goals of the center are to: Conduct a multidisciplinary agricultural health and safety research program targeting national research priorities for agricultural health and safety. Develop and evaluate educational, outreach, and intervention programs to prevent disease, injury, and hazardous exposures among agricultural workers and their family members. Serve as a national resource for delivery of current agricultural health knowledge and expertise to industrial hygienists, epidemiologists, ergonomists, veterinarians, and physicians to enhance the national capacity to meet the agricultural health needs of the nation. Provide agricultural health and safety technical assistance and consultation in research methods, training, and education to health and safety professionals and community-based agricultural health organizations. Maintain and strengthen linkages with health professionals in academic institutions, state and federal agencies, and international organizations to promote agricultural health and safety research, training, and prevention programs Individual Great Plains AG Center Projects Determinants of Gas and Dust Exposures Among Swine Workers  The long-term goal of this project is to protect workers from inhalation hazards in swine confinement buildings. The primary objective is to identify tasks and building characteristics that cause significantly elevated concentrations of gases and dusts in these buildings. The Keokuk County Rural Health Study: The Epidemiology of Agricultural Diseases and Injuries  The Keokuk County Rural Health Study (KCRHS) is a population-based, prospective study on the health status and environmental exposures of a large, stratified, random sample of residents in a rural Iowa County. The KCRHS focuses on primarily on injury and respiratory disease. The overall goal is to provide the scientific basis for agricultural disease and injury interventions through evaluations of health outcomes and risk factors. Building Capacity of Health and Safety Professionals  This project provides specialized training for health care professionals who treat farmers and their family members. Certificate and graduate programs at the University of Iowa also address the critical shortage of agricultural occupational health and safety researchers and program leaders by educating agricultural safety and health instructors. These “train the trainer” strategies support translation of research information into practice and help to disseminate educational and intervention programs. The project recently experienced another dramatic increase in activity. This was primarily due to incorporating distant learning methods (online courses and the use of systems such as Adobe Connect) to bring speakers to more distant sites (Vermont, Illinois) where the program was given. National Children's Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety NCCRAHS strives to enhance the health and safety of all children exposed to hazards associated with agricultural work and rural environments. The major focus is to translate research findings into practice and to move childhood agricultural safety knowledge into practice through sustained partnerships. The Center conducts research, education, intervention, prevention, translation and outreach activities to enhance the health and safety of children exposed to hazards associated with agricultural work and rural environments. The Center provides a wide range of services related to children and adolescents living in rural areas and working in agricultural environments. NCCRAHS has a track record of synergistic efforts addressing national priorities while involving a range of stake-holders. Since 1997, NCCRAHS has been a leader in: (a) building new partnerships, (b) conducting research with practical implications, (c) generating consensus on complex issues, and (d) producing resources deemed useful to multiple audiences. Individual Child Ag Center Projects Economics of Youth Farm Labor and Farm Injuries  This project is assessing the economics of youth working on family farms and the economic consequences of farm youth injury. Specific aims are to: estimate the number and cost of injuries and deaths of youth while working or living on a farm, with breakdowns by type of farm, by region, and by major source/event (e.g., tractor injury); estimate the permanent disability resulting from youth injury on farms; estimate the financial impact of youth injury on farm families for some types of farms; and compare injury rates and severities for hired youth, family youth, and adults doing farm work and analyze the cost-effectiveness of not letting children work on some type of farms from the perspective of a farm family. Motivating Farm Parents to Create Safe Play Areas on Farms: A Randomized Controlled Trial  This project is testing incentives to overcome barriers to building safe play areas. This project is a randomized controlled trial among three groups to evaluate the effectiveness of specific interventions to motivate parents to build safe play areas. An innovative element is a three-way partnership between a large insurance company, the National Children's Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety, and the University of Iowa. Integrating Safety Guidelines for Adolescent Farm Workers into Field Supervisors' Practice  The long-term goal of this project is to improve agricultural supervisors' practices related to training and supervision of adolescent farm workers. This project uses newly developed Safety Guidelines for Hired Adolescent Farm Workers resources and currently existing training venues to test a new method for conducting training among field supervisors in production agriculture. Results from this project will demonstrate whether or not there is potential for influencing changes in owner/employer expectations of their field supervisors who train and supervise adolescent farm workers. Stakeholder Communications  The goal is to facilitate dissemination of outreach, intervention, education, and research outputs to a diverse, inclusive group of stakeholders. The specific aims will be accomplished by Children's Center staff and collaboration with internal and external partners proficient in maximizing dissemination to all potential audiences. Childhood Agricultural Safety Network  The overall goal is to strengthen partnerships and collaborative initiatives involving the agricultural community, child injury prevention organizations, and minority-serving associations through an effective Childhood Agricultural Safety Network (CASN). An effective Childhood Agricultural Safety Network can advocate for major changes on behalf of children who live and/or work on farms. CASN members serve as Knowledge Translation Advisors. Various Center projects call on CASN members to provide general guidance or participate as venues for translation of findings into appropriate avenues for outreach and community level interventions. Blueprint for Knowledge Translation  The goal is to move state-of-the-art knowledge on childhood agricultural injury prevention into practice. Specific aims are to: gather and synthesize findings from childhood agricultural injury research and interventions that have been conducted since the 2001 Summit on Childhood Agricultural Injury Prevention; identify strengths and weaknesses of known interventions based on: a) injury data, b) different audiences, and c) different levels of the Ecological Model; engage researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders in developing a Blueprint for Childhood Agricultural Injury Prevention Knowledge Translation; activate the Blueprint through intermediaries and innovative technological communication strategies; and continually assess, modify, and expand translation opportunities based on participant feedback and updated knowledge regarding effective interventions and injury trends. The Northeast Center of Agricultural Safety and Health The Northeast Center (NEC) is a collaborative effort of investigators from institutions throughout the New England and Mid-Atlantic States. It is based at the New York Center for Agricultural Medicine and Health (NYCAMH) in Cooperstown, NY. NYCAMH was established by the New York Legislature in 1987 with funding to address research, educational and clinical consultative needs related to occupational problems in New York farming. Serving a twelve-state region from Maine through Delaware, NEC promotes farm health and safety research, education, and prevention activities. In partnership with other NIOSH centers, state and federal agencies, land grant universities, medical centers, and farm groups, NYCAMH/NEC uses injury and illness research findings to develop preventive teaching, educational health screening, demonstrations, interventions, engineering solutions and other related activities. NYCAMH/NEC's target audience includes: farmers and farm families, high school and college agricultural classes, vocational agriculture teachers, agribusiness and farm organizations, health professionals, engineers and safety specialists, members of the media and policy makers. Individual Northeast Center Projects Social Marketing of Rollover Protection in New York, Vermont, New Hampshire and Pennsylvania The long-term goal of the tractor initiative at the NEC is a reduction in fatalities and serious injuries due to tractor rollovers on Northeastern farms. The project has had an amazing response, and continues to be quite active. Farmers may apply for 70% of all costs (up to $765 maximum) for one tractor in this fourth year of the rebate program. To date there have been over 2607 inquiries about the program, and over 862 have purchased their ROPS with program assistance. Articles highlighting these programs and tractor safety efforts have been published in USA Today and the Wall Street Journal, as well as many popular farm journals and regional and local newspapers. Additionally, in a recent survey, 12% of the farmers responding reported dangerous incidents where death or injury was likely avoided due to the ROPS and seatbelt. Recent efforts have been dedicated to launching programs in VT, NY and PA, evaluating program impacts in all four states, ensuring rebate funding through state legislatures, agribusinesses, insurance companies and farm organizations and developing a risk assessment tool that will function to remind farmers to use protected tractors for dangerous tasks. Considerable energy has also been dedicated to documenting ROPS parts and installation issues and working with manufacturers to address these issues. Upcoming efforts will be directed towards implementing the risk assessment tool and the associated safety campaign, evaluating program impacts, and working with private industry and farm organizations to sustain the viability of these programs long-term. Preliminary evaluations indicate that these efforts have and will continue to increase the installation of these proven safety devices on unprotected tractors with attendant prevention of death and serious injuries. Research to Practice for Safe Entry into Confined Space Manure Storages The long-term goal of this project is to reduce injuries and deaths related to asphyxiation and poisoning of personnel as a consequence of entering improperely ventilated on-farm confined-space manure storages. The specific objectives are to 1) develop and obtain approval/adoption of an ASABE/ANSI consensus safety standard for pre-entry ventilation of on-farm confined-space manure storages, and 2) develop an outreach educational program to promote implementation of the provisions of the consensus safety standard by a wide range of key clientele including farm families, emergency service providers, and dsigners, manufacturers, distributers, or installers of on-farm confined-space manure storages. Both have been achieved by the research team. Northeast Community Collaborations for Farmworker Health and Safety The Northeast Community Collaborations for Farmworker Health and Safety Project is a participatory-based occupational health intervention in a community of migrant farmworkers in the Connecticut River Valley (CRV). It is being networked with existing community-based initiatives in Maine and New York. The intervention program builds on existing relationships and strengths among the coalition members to support an alliance of community teams with the capacity to intervene locally on recognized occupational health threats throughout the region.The project is evaluating the effect on previously observed rates of occupational injury or illness within the local community. Based upon priority decisions by a team of workers and employers hygiene and access to handwashing in the fields have been pursued in recent years. Additional work on noise exposure and back injury has been undertaken. Statewide Surveillance of New York State Farm Injuries  The surveillance research has identified the strengths and weaknesses of several different existing sources of farm injury data, and proposes a method of combining them to establish one comprehensive surveillance system that will make it possible to track fatal and non-fatal farm injury in a single system. In the past five years, researchers have focused on evaluating the potential of pre-hospital ambulance reports, and have established that non-fatal farm injury in New York state occurs roughly 14 times more often than fatal injury. In the next five years, researchers will further develop a surveillance model that may have utility for occupational injury surveillance across the U.S. Other Northeast Center Translation Projects The NEC ergonomic apple bucket has been extensively redesigned and is undergoing further orchard testing. The belt and bucket are undergoing further adjustments as advised by farmworkers in the orchard. At the same time, a new instrument that attaches to the apple bin is being developed and piloted, whose purpose is to reduce back strain while bending to unload the bin. Concurrently, an orchard safety video is being produced, that focuses primarily on ladder safety, ergonomics and use of appropriate eyewear. The NEC Migrant Clinicians Manual was designed to enhance the occupational health skills of physicians and nurses working in migrant health clinics. In its current revision (2011), researchers are collaborating from several NIOSH agricultural centers to develop similar farmworker profiles, which describe common health issues for migrant and seasonal workers in particular agricultural sectors. During this revision, the website is being expanded, and its technical capabilities greatly enhanced. Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center The Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health (PNASH) Center is located at the University of Washington. It serves Alaska, Idaho, Oregon and Washington with the goal of reducing occupational disease and injury among agricultural operators, workers and their families. The Center is focused on safe and sustainable agricultural workplaces and communities with an emphasis on injury and illness prevention, especially among hired laborers, migrant/seasonal workers, and children. Their approaches include: Working in partnership with employers, workers, agencies and other research and service organizations. Developing innovative research and intervention programs that focus on problem solving. Taking solutions to the workplace through training, outreach, and participatory research. Individual PNASH Center Projects Risk Factors for Cholinesterase (ChE) Depression Among Pesticide Handlers  This study is identifying and characterizing risk factors for ChE depression among handlers participating in the Washington State ChE monitoring program. To date, a total of 265 agricultural pesticide handlers have been enrolled in this study. During the past year, 48 handlers participated in the study, with a total of 50 visits (i.e., occasions when participating handlers completed the survey and/or provided a blood sample for PON1 testing). Self-reported information about potential sources of pesticide exposure was collected for a total of 50 participant visits during the 2010 spray season. Descriptive analyses of survey data from 154 study participants during the 2006-2007 spray seasons have been performed, and there is an ongoing analysis of the 2006-2010 data that will be completed by the end of 2010. Identified risk factors will be evaluated in terms of their impact on the prevalence of ChE depression and the prevalence of reported risk factors among participating handlers. Neurobehavioral Assessment of Pesticide Exposure in Children  The objective of this project is to identify and characterize organo-phosphorus pesticide exposure in the homes of pesticide mixer-loader-applicators and to relate those exposures to neurobehavioral performance of children of pesticide applicators over two years in a longitudinal study that examines neurodevelopmental changes. Two hundred and forty five families have completed home interviews and neurobehavioral testing. Dust samples were collected from homes where carpet was available (N=254). These samples are being analyzed at the University of Washington laboratory. Families tested in the winter of 2009 have been contacted and asked to complete questionnaires assessing pesticide exposure in the past year and to collect a second dust sample from their home. Eighty two of these families have completed the second year interview and neurobehavioral test session. Computer-based training (Safe Workplace, Safe Home/Sitio de Trabajo Seguro, Hogar Seguro) has been developed, and was given to 470 adults at the Hood River County Fair during 2010. Pre- and post-test knowledge was assessed along with demographic information. Enhancements to Cholinesterase Monitoring: Oxime Reactivation and OP-Che Adducts  This project is developing and validating two analytical methods to measure the interaction of OP pesticides with cholinesterase enzyme. The assays developed during this project will be incorporated into the OP pesticide exposure monitoring in Washington State. Interventions to Minimize Worker and Family Pesticide Exposures  The overall objective of this five-year project is to identify and test practical interventions that reduce pesticide exposures of agricultural workers and their families, and to disseminate these "best practices" into agricultural workplaces and workers' homes in the Northwest and around the nation. In Year 4, 32 practical solutions were identified by worksite walk-through evaluations and personal interviews with the farm mangers and pesticide handlers. All solutions were innovations developed on the farm. Twenty practical solutions have been evaluated by 29 pesticide safety educators and orchard managers (in English and Spanish). Solutions have also been evaluated by Hispanic pesticide handler audiences using an audience response system. The project has validated a quantitative method for using fluorescent tracers to evaluate application technologies. Introducing a Cholinesterase Test Kit into Clinical Practice  The Test-mate™ kit has been shown to be an effective, cost-efficient test that can provide rapid results for workers - important if they are shown to have a ChE depression. The center is bringing this technology to clinical providers and allowing them to conduct “on-the-spot” evaluations of workers. Storytelling to Translate Agriculture Health and Safety Research  This project uses the tradition of storytelling to translate health and safety research findings and education efforts for agriculture producers and workers on ladder injuries and heat stress. Three-minute Story Corps narratives were developed for placement in communication channels: manure pit entrapment, harrow rollover, combine amputation, fatal encounter with a bull, cervical spine fracture from hay bale blow, ladder fall, ATV rollovers (one fatal and one near miss), child finger-burn from a hay baler, and a tractor (with ROPS) rollover incident. Four comic dramas demonstrating the risk factors, signs and symptoms, and treatment of 5 heat illnesses were aired on two Spanish-language stations covering the northwestern and central eastern regions of the state. Both stations aired the novelas on a rotating basis at least three times per day. Assessment of Job-related Exposures for Diarrheal Illness in Farmworker Families  The primary objective is to assess job-related exposures for farmworkers and their families to three common zoonotic bacterial pathogens (Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and E.coli O157:H7). The specific aims are to: adapt, develop, and/or validate methods for sampling of bacteria on surfaces (e.g. vehicle and household carpets, worker apparel, and other workplace, vehicle and household surfaces); assess fomitic surfaces, bioaerosol, and water as workplace exposure pathways; assess the paraoccupational (or take-home) exposure pathway for three zoonotic pathogens (Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and E.coli O157:H7); and assess residential proximity to job-related livestock operations as an exposure pathway. Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention The Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention at the University of Kentucky is dedicated to developing and promoting transdisciplinary approaches to the occupational safety and health of agricultural workers and their families. The Center serves stakeholders in Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, West Virginia, and Virginia. Recognizing the multiple linkages affecting public health (IOM, 2001) and the importance of strategic systems thinking when addressing challenges in public health, the Center’s investigators and staff work closely with colleagues from the UK Colleges of Medicine, Agriculture, Nursing, Education, Communications, and Engineering, and with researchers and practitioners from various external agencies and institutions. This transdisciplinary approach lends an array of resources and skills to the Center and enhances its capabilities in research, education, outreach, and prevention. The Southeast Center continues to focus on special populations; emerging, ignored or persistent agricultural safety and health concerns in the Southeast; cost analysis of tractor and other farm-related injuries; and education/training of public health professionals with an emphasis on agricultural safety and health. Selected Southeast Center Projects Poison Center Surveillance of Agricultural Poisonings This 3-year research project involved six poison control centers in Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and Alabama. The participating sites tested a modification to the Toxicall® surveillance software system that is used in more than 70 percent of U.S. poison control centers. The modification was designed to improve the quantity and the quality of data obtained on agriculture-related pesticide exposures. Of 7,522 poison control center calls received involving 39 study pesticides, the enhanced protocol solicited additional information in 270 cases, thereby providing more precise etiological detail about reported exposures linked to production agriculture. The study technology may be used by poison control centers to enhance documentation of other exposures of eminent interest.  Aquaculture Safety and Health This 5-year study is one of the first in the nation to systematically address emerging hazards in aquaculture and to identify practical, evidence-based solutions. Principal Investigator Melvin L. Myers, MPA, and Dr. Henry Cole of the University of Kentucky work closely on this project with Dr. Robert Durborow of the Kentucky State University Aquaculture Research Center, one of the top 5 aquaculture programs in the United States. The research team has completed more than 29 operator interviews and walk-through surveys in Mississippi (catfish in ponds), South Carolina (clams in estuaries and bays; submerged nets), North Carolina (trout in raceways), Kentucky (trout, bass, and catfish in ponds and raceways), and British Columbia (salmon in ponds and net pens). Many of the control technologies, safe production strategies, and other best practices identified and evaluated by the project have been conceived and designed by farmers themselves. These and other field-tested solutions have the potential to transform safety in aquaculture as that sector continues to grow and evolve -- that is, before hazardous technologies or practices become deeply ingrained in day to day practice and farm culture. Economics of Preventing Agricultural Injuries to Adolescent and Adult Farmers  This prevention/intervention project targets four types of injury events that are prevalent among adolescents and adults who live and/or work on farms: (1) crush injuries to operators when tractors without rollover protective structures (ROPS) overturn; (2) collisions between farm tractors and other motor vehicles on public roadways; (3) traumatic brain injuries to horseback and ATV riders without helmets, and (4) hearing loss to individuals with long-term exposure to high frequencies and loud noises. To promote more effective farm safety education and increased use of personal protective equipment and other risk/hazard reduction behaviors, this project has tested and evaluated the online delivery of (1) interactive narrative simulation exercises that depict a typical case scenario for each of these injury categories across the pre-event, event, and post-event stages, and (2) an interactive Excel™-based Cost Tool that calculates the costs of each injury and the cost-effectiveness of its prevention. EOP materials incorporate readily into required core curricula content for high school students and vividly explain the impact of safety on farmers’ financial bottom line. The secure online data collection system devised for this project allows a virtually seamless transition of research-to-practice for both researchers and classroom educators. Developing a Smart ROPS Decision-making Guide Tractor overturns are the leading cause of fatalities among agricultural workers. Although rollover protective structures (ROPS) used in combination with seatbelts are the single most effective way to prevent injury and death from tractor overturns, an estimated 2.4 million farm tractors in the U.S. lack ROPS and should be retrofitted. Until now, a major barrier to increasing the prevalence of tractors equipped with rollover protective structures had been lack of information about which companies supply retrofit ROPS, what ROPS are available for which tractors, and how to obtain these ROPS. To eliminate this barrier, Dr. Mark Purschwitz of the University of Kentucky College of Agriculture led development of the user-friendly Kentucky ROPS Guide, the only the only up-to-date, comprehensive online source of ROPS retrofit information in North America and perhaps anywhere in the world.  Teaching Public Health Students about Agricultural Safety and Health:  This 5-year education/ translation project has continued the design, implementation, and evaluation of the Health of Agricultural Populations (HAP) emphasis area in the MPH, DrPH, and PhD programs in the UK College of Public Health. Nurse Agricultural Education Project Led by Deborah Reed, RN, PhD, Professor, University of Kentucky College of Nursing, this project addresses the critical need for increasing the agricultural safety and health knowledge of nurse educators, nurse researchers, and students. NAEP has provided traditional and innovative technology-based formats for training of nurse educators, researchers, and students about agricultural illness and injury prevention. Through project-related activity in more than 20 states, NAEP continues to build a growing network of nurses with relevant skills and interests in agricultural occupational safety and health. Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education The Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education (SW Center) is located at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler. The center currently focuses on innovative approaches to address work-related issues in special agricultural populations including: migrant children, Vietnamese shrimpers, Navajo farm¬ers/ranchers, and youth in agriculture. The guiding principle of the Center is to improve the health and safety of the agricultural community. The Center has developed a broad range of partners for conducting agricultural safety and health research, intervention and outreach activities through-out Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas. These partners represent the diversity of the workforce and the range of agricultural production in the region. Individual Southwest Center Projects Migrant Adolescent Health Research Study This cross-sectional and prospective cohort study of students from two South Texas high schools along the Texas-Mexico border is examining the prevalence of, and the risk factors for, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and back pain. Data on modifiable risk factors in young farmworkers are being collected to compare migrant farmworker students to other Hispanic students. The ultimate goal is to transfer findings to interventions (including policy development) to prevent chronic diseases and back pain in children and adults. Innovative Approaches To Worker Health Protection Among Shrimp Fisherman Of The Gulf Coast The long-term objectives are to: 1) characterize selective workplace factors and lifestyle behaviors which may contribute to morbidity and mortality among Gulf Coast shrimp fishermen (shrimpers) and 2) utilize a community based approach to planning, implementing, and evaluating prevention and education measures directed at priority workplace factors and lifestyle behaviors. The project is a collaboration with the United States Coast Guard and other partners to identify, survey, and conduct noise level monitoring, audiometry, and spirometry among convenience samples of Gulf Coast shrimpers in Texas and Louisiana. Model Farmers Dissemination Project This project is enhancing the capacity of Navajo model farmer "opinion leaders" to provide consulting expertise on best management practices and pesticide safety application procedures through training, equipment and supplies. The effectiveness of this intervention is being assessed using farm yield, safety behaviors and environmental effects (levels of agricultural chemicals in the run-off water). Recommendations about "model farms" and "model farmers" are being developed and will be used to help disseminate best practices to neighboring farmers on the Navajo Nation and to other culturally differentiated groups where health disparities may be common. Promoviendo Farmworker Safety- Heat Stress Prevention Intervention Mapping is the framework used to identify and address cultural and logistical barriers to heat stress prevention for hired farmworkers. A bi-lingual (Spanish) educational toolkit is being developed and validated for promotores (lay health educators) 1) to be certified by the TX Department of State Health Services as competent to teach heat stress prevention to farmworkers, and 2) to teach standardized information that is culturally and linguistically appropriate for Spanish-speaking farmworkers. The toolkit includes a photonovella, flipchart, PPE examples, and intervention report forms. The Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety Center The Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety (WCAHS) at UC Davis has made strides in areas of research, prevention/intervention and education/outreach. It is uniquely situated to address and affect the health and safety of farmers, farm family members, hired farm workers and their families because of its co-location with the UC Davis Schools of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, its Colleges of Agriculture and Engineering, and the California’s Central Valley, one of Western agriculture’s most intensive and productive regions. WCAHS has taken a leadership role in addressing western agricultural health and safety issues, including health among migrant and seasonal (hired) farm workers, ergonomics of labor-intensive crop work, respiratory hazards in dry-climate farming, health of women and children in agriculture and pesticide safety. The public (general and agricultural) have been recipients of educational programs. WCAHS’ electronic communications (newsletter, list server) have expanded educational efforts of the center internationally. Individual Western Center Projects Rapid Assays for Human and Environmental Exposure Assessment This project is developing rapid, sensitive, and cost effective immunoassays that will provide high quality analytical data for use in exposure assessment, model development, and mechanistic research. Objectives of the study are to: develop technologies to improve the speed, sensitivity, and robustness of existing immunoassays for biomarkers; develop immunoassays for new analytes of both exposure and effect that have been identified as useful to other WCAHS investigators; and provide analytical support to other WCAHS investigators with existing pesticide immunoassays. The major impact of this research on public health will be the development of sensitive, rapid, cost effective analysis tools for biomarkers of the pesticides, permethrin, imidacloprid, thiomethoxam and fipronil and a more general marker of inflammation. Farm Worker Family Health Cohort Study Specific aims are to: 1) Conduct two questionnaire follow-ups of the MICASA study population (from the previous funding period) and to conduct spirometry, measure vital signs and anthropometry, and collect biologic samples; 2) Assess the relationship of exposure to dusts and other toxicants from agricultural activities to respiratory health; 3) Assess the contribution of agricultural work to musculoskeletal problems and injuries; 4) Assess the relationship between lifestyle factors (i.e. diet, obesity and smoking) with chronic health outcomes; 5) Disseminate results to individuals, the farm worker community and policy makers to increase awareness of factors affecting health among farm worker families and to suggest approaches to improve health. This research has direct relevance to public health in that it will aid our understanding of the diverse causes of disease in this population and assist in developing strategies to prevent complications from acute and chronic diseases. It would also provide a natural progression from research to intervention and prevention efforts. Respiratory Health and Exposures on Large Californian Dairies The aims of this study are to define the concentrations of airborne pollutants highly associated with respiratory problems, and examine the respiratory health of the dairy workers compared to a control group of creamery employees and grain storage workers in a collaborator's study in Colorado. This cross-sectional study is monitoring personal exposure to particulate matter, endotoxins, and ammonia over a work shift in 200 dairy workers (from dairies with over 1,000 lactating cows) and 50 creamery workers. Outreach is also being extended to those individuals who deal with health, safety and other regulations pertaining to the dairy industry. Health Effects of Airborne Agricultural Particles from the Sacramento/San Joaquin Valley This project is addressing the following questions: (1) Do differences in particle concentration, size distribution, and composition that occur as a function of agricultural activity result in different health outcomes that can be detected during inhalation exposure experiments? (2) Is exposure to agricultural particles associated with measurable pulmonary responses following short-term to sub-acute exposure intervals? (3) Does the season of the year have a significant bearing on respiratory responses observed?, and (4) Are specific components of agricultural-based particles more toxic than others? Each question is being addressed using real-time, inhalation exposure experiments.  Dairy Safety Training Program This program was developed by the WCAHS as part of the Worker Occupational Safety and Health Training and Education Program (WOSHTEP). WOSHTEP is administered by the Commission on Health and Safety and Workers’ Compensation in the Department of Industrial Relations through interagency agreements with the Labor Occupational Health Program at UC Berkeley, WCAHS and the Labor Occupational Safety and Health Program at UCLA. Products of this program can be found at:  Newsletters and Reports To assist in the NIOSH mission, in 1990, Congress established a National Program for Occupational Safety and Health in Agriculture within NIOSH to lead a national effort in surveillance, research, and intervention. This program has had a "significant and measurable impact" on reducing adverse health effects among agricultural workers. As part of this program, ten Agricultural Research Centers were established nationally. These Ag Centers conduct research, education, and prevention projects to address the nation’s pressing agricultural safety and health problems. Geographically, the Ag Centers are distributed throughout the nation to be responsive to the agricultural safety and health issues unique to the different regions. Through these efforts, the Ag Centers help to ensure that actions to prevent disease and injury in agriculture are taken based upon scientific findings. The annual reports are offered as an overview resource of the Center’s activities. Disease and Pest Control Pesticides and alternatives There is a heavy mandate in the U.S. to develop alternatives to chemical pesticides for controlling agricultural pests. Studies have shown chemical pesticides can cause significant health risks to humans, contaminate water supplies, and harm non-target life. One solution to this problem involves genetically enhancing plants to combat pests directly. Plants can be grown without chemicals and with increased resistance to disease and pests by using genetic engineering. Sugar beets, for example, are very susceptible to a variety of worms, whereas other types of beets are not because of a protein they naturally produce. Genetic engineers can take the gene from the worm-resistant beets and insert it into the DNA of the sugar beet. The engineered sugar beet is no longer at the mercy of the worm, and the environment is not harmed. The following situation is an example of the debate surrounding the use of genetic engineering in agriculture; like all choices, it has both positive and negative consequences. Pros of the Bt Corn Issue Some commercial pesticides have been withdrawn from the market because of health and environmental risks, leaving many crops vulnerable to disease and insects. Several varieties of pests are becoming pesticide-resistant, rendering the chemicals useless. At Cornell University, the Bioprocess Development Research project is attempting to discover new natural products which provide safer means of pest control using biopesticides (natural pesticides as opposed to manmade) from fungi and other plants. Scientists study the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans Courtesy USDA ARS A good example of genetic pest control is the Bt corn plant. One of the most troublesome pests to corn farmers is a worm called a "corn borer". As the name implies, this little worm bores into the husks of corn, weakening and possibly killing the plant. Even if the plant is not killed, its yield is reduced because it is weakened so much by the worm that it cannot use as much energy on growing ears of corn as it normally would. A second problem associated with the corn borer worm is that it also transmits a fungus to the corn when it bores into its husks. This fungus produces chemicals called mycotoxins, which are toxic to humans and animals. Genetic scientists have found a solution to this troublesome pest, without the use of chemical pesticides which harm the environment and humans. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a common bacterium that grows in the soil and is harmless to humans and animals. This bacterium secretes a protein that is toxic to the corn borer. Scientists inserted the protein producing gene from the Bt bacterium into the genetic code of corn plants, and the resulting seeds produce normal corn plants except that the plant also contains the corn borer killing protein. When one of the worms bites into the corn plant, it ingests the protein, and is killed. The protein is completely harmless to humans, and has been given full approval by the USDA. Today, nearly 40% of all corn grown in the United States is produced from genetically engineered seed. Cons of the Bt Corn Issue However, a recent study by Cornell researchers proved to be a large setback for the widespread use of Bt corn, especially outside the united states in biotechnology skeptical Europe. The study found that the pollen from the genetically enhanced plant is toxic to the larvae of the monarch butterfly. This information is not new, but it created a public distrust in the safety of genetically modified foods. The study that produced these findings has come under attack by many experts in the biotechnology field as being untrue to conditions in nature, and many are claiming that the use of Bt corn actually benefits the Monarch. Bt corn proponents argue that in nature, the larvae will only have a 10 day period in which they may ingest the pollen from the corn plant, and the pollen may easily be washed away by rain or dew. Additionally, larvae have a wide variety of plants to feed on in nature, most of which will not have the Bt corn pollen on them. Finally, one must take into consideration the alternatives to Bt corn. If traditional corn is used, large amounts of chemical pesticides must be used, which damages a wide variety of non target life, including the monarch and other species. They argue that Bt corn is much safer for the monarch butterfly, and does not effect any other non target life. Therefore, when all factors are taken into consideration, Bt corn is actually much safer than current methods of pest control- safer for humans, and safer for non target life as well. Still, Greenpeace and other organizations are calling for the ban of Bt corn, and other genetically modified foods until their safety to both humans and the environment may be better proven. Disease control One very important development has been a vaccine for hoof and mouth disease, which causes sores in the mouths and hooves of animals, making them weak. It is caused by about 60 related virus types. The first vaccine for hoof and mouth disease developed using recombinant techniques is made of a protein called VP3, one of four proteins that make up the surface of the virus. The protein is spliced into the genes of E. coli bacteria. This vaccine works on one of the 60 virus types. Vaccines for hoof and mouth disease have been developed to combat all the viruses, but the vaccine's effect is temporary.

What are the main health problems and occupational diseases caused by agricultural work?

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What are the main health problems and occupational diseases caused by agricultural work?

Agriculture requires a wide range of tasks to be carried out. This in turn leads to a wide range of subsequent risks to the health of workers. Depending on the risks, specific health problems and occupational diseases may arise:

Respiratory diseases:

• Allergic respiratory disease e.g.:
  • farmer’s lung,
  • bird breeder’s lung,
  • grain dust asthma.
• Other respiratory problems e.g.:
  • fumes (fumigating agents) in greenhouses can even cause asphyxiation,
  • exposure to grain dust may cause organic dust toxic syndrome,
  • fungi, chemical residues, soil particles and allergens can all cause respiratory diseases.

Skin diseases:

• Skin contact with chemicals or prolonged exposure to UV radiation (sun light) can have dermatological effects such as:
  • irritant and/or allergic contact dermatitis,
  • sun-induced dermatitis,
  • burns,
  • melanoma,
  • skin cancer, etc.

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs):

• as a result of lifting heavy loads and, poor manual handling techniques
• because of an exposure to vibration while driving agricultural vehicles and using equipment,
• as a result of awkward postures while harvesting etc.

Following hazards can be reasons of health problems:

Noise:

• exposure to noise from stationary machinery, from mobile machinery as wellas fromlivestock that can lead to hearing loss e.g.

Pesticide exposure:

• can be associated with a number of health problems including:
  • acute or chronic carcinogenic, causing cancers of the brain, stomach, pancreas, etc,;
  • immunology diseases;
  • neurotoxic diseases;
  • reproductive toxic effects;
  • leukaemia, and;
  • lymphomas.

Biological agents:

• Exposure can cause in some cases:
  • tuberculosis,
  • tetanus,
  • anthrax,
  • brucellosis,
  • leptospyrosis, etc.

Thermal stress:

• could be an important cause of health complications, e.g. for workers in warm climates.